Holmes Rolston, “Valuing Aesthetic Nature”, Env. Ethics 1988
•	Two questions:
•	Subjectivity or objectivity of natural beauty?
–	Is natural beauty in the eye of the beholder or in the world?
•	Positive Aesthetics
–	Is all nature beautiful?
Objectivity/subjectivity of beauty
•	Is beauty in experiencing subject or the objective world?
•	Rolston’s view:
•	Beauty (as aesthetic experience and perhaps also aesthetic value) is only in the subject
•	But what this aesthetic experience responds to, namely aesthetic properties, is in the world (is objective)
Rolston’s list of aes properties
–	Canyon’s abyss, fury of the storm, wildness of wilderness
–	Form, structure, integrity, order, competence, muscular strength, endurance, dynamic movement, symmetry, diversity, unity, spontaneity, interdependence, lives defended, creative and regenerative power, evolutionary speciation
–	Are these all aes properties?  Are some (non-aesthetic) base properties on which aesthetic properties depend?
–	For example, graceful is an aes property that depends on some non-aes features of the movement of a deer
Aes properties in nature “call for” certain aes responses (objectivity)
–	We are not projecting these properties; they are there
–	What is out there is aesthetically worthy
–	World is beautiful like it is mathematical
•	Math experience comes from us, but mathematical properties are there and we map on to them with our mathematics
•	Lines of latitude/longitude and contours on a map come from us but they map what is objectively there
•	So aes properties are in world and appropriate aes experience responds to them
Aes experience (value?) does not depend on humans; nonhumans have aes experience (=exp)
•	Aes exp comes in diverse forms
•	Higher aes exp (scenic beauty, sublime) only had by humans 
•	If aes exp accompanies physical satisfaction
•	If it is pleasure caused by way things appear to the senses 
–	Eating a tasty meal
–	Enjoying warmth of sun
•	Surely some animals have these expiences
Big-Horn Sheep Ram
•	We admire muscular strength and power of ram
•	Ewe is attracted to him and permits mating 
•	Plausible to think she experiences some of this
•	Consistent w/ natural selection that this attraction registers in her experience

Peacock
•	Peahen is attracted to peacock’s tail or it would be a liability and natural selection would have never preserved it
•	Unless deny animals have experience at all, hard to deny they have nascent, precursor to aes experience
Is All Of Nature Beautiful?
Elk bottom
Zebra
John Muir’s Positive Aes
•	“None of nature’s landscapes are ugly so long as they are wild”

•	Muir’s thesis of interconnectedness:  “When you try to pick out one thing in the universe you will find it hitched to everything else in the universe”
Rejections of Positive Nature Aesthetics
•	“Just as there are rotten violinists, so there must be pathetic creeks; just as there is pulp fiction, so there must be junk species; just as there are forgettable meals, so there must be inconsequential forests”
–	Stan Godlovitch, “Evaluating Nature Aesthetically,” Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 56, 2 1998, p. 121
•	Some parts of nature may be “irremediably inexpressive, unredeemably characterless, and aesthetically null.”  
–	Ronald Hepburn, “Nature in Light of Art,” in Wonder and Other Essays (Edinburgh U. Press, 1984, p.. 47)
Rolston’s Characterization of Positive Aes
•	Landscapes always supply beauty, never ugliness
•	Like clouds are never ugly, only more or less beautiful, so too, mountains, rivers, forests, seashores, grasslands, cliffs, canyons, & cascades 
–	Never called for to say such places bland, dull, boring, chaotic
•	Unfailingly generate favorable experience in the suitably perceptive
•	Obviously, some don’t like swamps, deserts,  prairies
•	But to say of a desert, the tundra, a volcanic eruption that it is ugly is to make a false statement and to respond inappropriately
Rolston’s Pos Aes
•	“Nature’s landscapes, almost w/o fail, have an essential beauty” 
•	Not claiming:
–	All equally beautiful (equal beauty thesis)
–	Nature perfectly beautiful (perfect beauty thesis)
•	Artificial reefs can increase natural beauty

Rolston grants some nature ugly
•	Not embracing “programmatic nature romanticism” 
•	Some items in nature are ugly when viewed from certain perspectives and when viewed  in isolation
•	“There is itemized individual ugliness in nature”
–	E.g., a crippled fish that escaped an alligator
Positive aes is an area level claim for Rolston:
•	In a landscape, ecosystemic perspective, all qualities are positive to some degree
Allen Carlson’s + aes is stronger than Rolston’s
•	“Each natural thing, either with appropriate appreciation or at many, if not almost all, levels and conditions of observation, has substantial positive aesthetic value and little, if any, negative aesthetic value.”
–	Not just natural kinds
–	Not just “essential beauty” 
–	Not just a little beauty
Rolston considers possible counter-examples to + nature aes
•	“Failures in nature are omnipresent, all organisms and ecosystems are finally ruined” (e.g., they die/come to an end)
•	Tourists take no pictures of these “eye sores”
•	They are not picturesque 
Putrid rotting elk carcass, full of wiggling maggots is revolting
In nature, as much is ragged and marred as beautiful
Bear scat aesthetically positive?
Ugliness diminished/overcome when viewed in proper context
–	Seen from a landscape and ecosystem perspective, these are not ugly
•	Ugliness transformed in ecosystem perspective
•	“Ugliness mellows—though it does not disappear”
•	“Ugly parts do not subtract from but enrich the whole”
–	Momentary ugliness a still shot in an ongoing (aesthetically positive) motion picture
–	From an informed, systemic perspective only get positive aes response
–	Each item must be seen in environmental context
•	Judgment of ugliness is like looking at piece of a jigsaw puzzle and saying pieces are misshapen
Humans selected to find some things repulsive (rotting carcasses, excrement)
•	But not ugly in the system of nutrient recycling
•	Systemic beauty of body decaying
•	Rotting elk returns to humus and is recycled; maggots become flies, food for birds; natural selection leads to better adapted elk
Appeal to cognitive dimension (knowledge) part of this defense of + aes
•	Such beauty is not so much viewed as experienced after ecological understanding gained
•	Many of life’s richest aes experiences can not be put on a canvas or have a picture taken of them 
•	Natural history/science allows aes appreciation of what might otherwise be aes negative
•	Allows us to move beyond scenery cult
Fall Color
Scenery cult as a bad reason for rejecting positive aes
•	That nature isn’t picturesque, doesn’t mean it is not beautiful
•	Nature’s positive aes value transcends scenic beauty
•	Inappropriate to drive through a park and harvest scenic resources only
•	“As if nature that can’t serve us must please us”
Lamb killed by Bobcat
Coyote Bloodthirsty killer?
Predation

•	“Fierce and cruel they appear to us, but beautiful in the eyes of God” 
John Muir on Alligators

Tiger
•	Local disvalue to prey is value to predator and is systemic value
•	“Ugliness here is only a projection; like big bad wolf”
Forest fire
Amazon Burning

•	Recovery
from  forest fire
•	Releases nutrients, resets succession, helps regenerate shade intolerant trees.
Worrisome counterexamples to positive aesthetics
Three-Headed Frog       Disfigured monstrous animals
Mt. Saint  Helens  
Infrequent catastrophes
•	Nature can’t adapt and evolve in response to them
•	Rolston sees “Ugly events as anomalies challenging general paradigm of nature’s landscapes w/o fail having essential beauty”

•	Helens recovery
Rolston general strategy
•	Reinterpret local intrinsic ugliness as systemic instrumental beauty
•	Shifting reference frames on us?
•	No;  Rolston says he is insisting on context
•	Worries:
–	Ecology makes these intelligible, but not beautiful?
–	How get from instrumentally valuable/necessary to aes positive?
Positive aesthetics thesis not plausible for art
•	Implausible to say artworks never badly done
–	Yet does say this for virgin landscapes; more or less + formed
•	Can be no failures in nature (whereas there can be in art), as no artistic intention
–	Nature, unlike artist, can never fail as never tried
+ Aes for art at category level? 
•	Just as Rolston limits his + aes to landscape level, systemic perspective
•	What if we limit + aes claim for art to the category level
•	Each type of art is aes positive:  Jazz music, folk, impressionism, ballet, surrealism
–	Some instances of these are ugly
•	But unlike Rol account for itemized ugliness in nature, don’t want to say that bad artwork looses its ugliness when viewed in broader context
End
Slides removed follow
Are Lawns Beautiful?  Deserve A Positive Aes Response?
•	Need ecological knowledge to know why not
•	Relies on env. unfriendly herbicides, pesticides
•	Insensitive to indigenous plants
•	Ignores local climate (water use)
                                                                                              
•	“As long as people want large, green, closely mowed yards no matter what the climate or soil or water conditions, they will continue to use polluting gasoline mowers and a toxic cocktail of fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides.”  Marcia Eaton

Two senses of objectivity/subjectivity

•	One (location question):  Is beauty (aes value?) is in experiencing subject or the objective world?
Rolston,  beauty in the subject (experiencer) not the world

•	Two (justification question):  Is there no better/worse, no appropriate or inappropriate aes responses to nature?
•	Rolston no
•	Believes in objectivity in aes responses to nature

Miscellaneous
•	Rolston’s is a Humean position?
•	Suggests human exp of beauty is accidental, epiphenomenal
•	“By chance nature echoes our aes taste”
•	Ignores that natural selection might have helped shape our aesthetic tastes
–	Carroll’s idea

Biophilia hypothesis
•	Gordon H. Orians and Judith H. Heerwagen, "Evolved Responses to Landscapes," in Jerome H. Barkow, Leda cosmides and John Tooby, eds., The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and the Generation of Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), pages 555‑ 579. 
•	Judith H. Heerwagen and Gordon H. Orians, "Humans, Habitats, and Aesthetics," in Stephen R. Kellert and Edward O. Wilson, eds., The Biophilia Hypothesis (Washington, DC: Island Press, 1993), pages 138‑172. 
•	Roger S. Ulrich, "Biophilia, Biophobia, and Natural Landscapes," in Stephen R. Kellert and Edward O. Wilson, eds., The Biophilia Hypothesis (Washington, DC: Island Press, 1993), 73‑137. 
What is in nature?
•	Sci processes (and values they carry!)
•	Predator/prey regulation, photosynthesis
•	Nutritional value of the potato

Some value in nature, beauty not
•	Beauty, like ethics, in human response to world and not in world
•	Beauty a subjective value, not model for all value, as some value (biological value) is objective